Summary
This text is a translation of the introduction to Pri Yehoshua, a 1948 collection of responsa by the prominent Orthodox legal scholar (posek) Rav M.T. Eichenstein. Translated by Prof. Tsvi Blanchard, the essay offers a unique "meta-historical" and dialectical view of the four major religious and cultural movements that shaped European Jewry over the 150 years prior to the book's publication.
Rav Eichenstein argues that while these movements often seemed at war with one another, the survival of traditional Judaism requires synthesizing the positive, fundamental virtues of the three traditional movements to combat the destructive forces of the fourth.
The Period of Lamdanut (Scholarship): Centered in Lithuania and championed by the Vilna Gaon, this movement elevated rigorous intellectual Talmudic study above all else. Its watchword was "Know the Torah." However, its purely intellectual focus left the spiritual and emotional needs of the broader Jewish masses unmet.
The Enlightenment (Haskalah): Originating in Germany with Moses Mendelssohn, this movement sought to integrate Jews into secular European culture. Eichenstein views this as a destructive force that replaced traditional study with secular rationalism, ultimately leading to mass assimilation and conversion to Christianity.
The Hasidic Movement: Arising in Eastern Europe under the Baal Shem Tov, Hasidism served as a countermeasure to both the Enlightenment and the emotional dryness of Lamdanut. It emphasized mysticism, spiritual ecstasy, joy, and the inherent goodness of every soul. Its watchword was "Know God."
The Musar Movement: Founded by Rabbi Yisrael Salanter, Musar acted as a bridge between Lithuanian scholarship and Hasidic emotionalism. It required intense ethical self-scrutiny, continuous character development, and profound humility before God. Its watchword was "Know yourself."
Conclusion: Rav Eichenstein concludes by addressing the modern crisis of American Jewry (assimilation and the Reform movement). He asserts that mere imitation of the past is insufficient; instead, true traditional Jewish education must unify the three great pillars—Lamdanut, Hasidism, and Musar—under a single banner: "Know the Torah, God, and yourself."
Introduction to Pri Yehoshua
The present work by the well-known posek ha-Rav ha-Gaon M.T. Eichenstein serves as his introduction to the Pri Yehoshua, a collection of his responsa first published in 1948. Except for those who stay current with halakhic literature, few interested Jewish readers have become familiar with the less "technical" introduction translated here. (The Pri Yehoshua itself has had wide circulation among poskim; e.g., it is mentioned and discussed by Rabbis Y.Y. Weinberg, Dov Baer Weidenfeld, and Akiva Sofer.) It is hoped that the present rendition makes Rav Eichenstein's approach available to a wider range of readers.
In translating his work, literal translations have been avoided, simply because it is almost impossible to render Rav Eichenstein's fine Hebrew style directly into English. My major concern has been to transmit the focus and methodology of the work. The enterprise of "meta-history" undertaken in this introduction was rare, if not nonexistent, among gedolei yisrael (great Jewish leaders) at the time the Pri Yehoshua was published. Certainly, the "dialectical" method employed by Rav Eichenstein—his synthesis of the fundamental positive "moments" in Jewish religious movements—is unique among gedolei ha-aharonim (later rabbinic authorities). The careful reader will detect, I hope, the tip of the vast iceberg of historical erudition, lamdanut (analytical scholarship), and intellectual sensitivity that characterizes ha-Rav ha-Gaon M.T. Eichenstein.
Religious Movements of the Last Century (By Rav M.T. Eichenstein)
The history of the previous generation has yet to be given a complete and illuminating treatment from a traditional Jewish point of view. Attempts made, even by religious writers, have been only partial discussions. We presently lack even a somewhat restricted perspective through which to comprehend the events of the preceding generation.
During the last 150 years, four religious movements have appeared in Judaism. At first glance, on the basis of their intense internecine struggles, they seem to be strongly opposing movements. To compensate for this view, we approach each movement here with an interest in its central vector—the direction of its major positive contribution to Judaism. Through our emphasis on fundamental themes, we hope to derive the basis for a unified conceptualization of the religious events of the last 150 years.
The Period of Lamdanut (Scholarship)
Throughout the generations, the study of the Talmud has grown deep roots in the life of the Jews. At the beginning of the eighteenth century in Poland and Lithuania, talmudic scholarship was granted special prominence. Talmudic authorities of the period (such as the Taz) enjoyed a powerful influence. The intellectual giant Elijah, Gaon of Vilna (1720–1797), virtually opened a new field of study in Judaism, influencing the yeshivot in Lithuania for generations to come. Even today, he is called simply "the Gaon." A man of incomparable talents, he was unique among the rabbis of Poland and Lithuania at that time. In fact, the Gaon is better placed among figures from earlier generations (the Rishonim) than among his own contemporaries. He is the halakhic terminus ad quem of his generation, much as the Alfasi (Rif) was of the Gaonic period. The sheer breadth of his knowledge is comparable to that of Maimonides. The study of the Talmud and its commentaries was the Gaon's greatest love.
The essential characteristic of the Gaon's approach was his striving to find the most direct explanation of a text. For this reason, he devoted himself to the search for critical text editions of the Talmud and other works. His efforts toward true scholarship were communicated to his students and, through them, to the younger generation. A young Jewish boy of that period aimed at acquiring a wide knowledge of the Talmud and a place in the rabbinate.
During the period of Lamdanut, Eastern European Jewry developed a distinct style. The yeshivot and other places for study had only one purpose: to create a generation of great scholars. The supporting pillars of Jewish life were the Talmud and rabbinical literature. Knowledge of the Talmud was honored in all areas of national life. The Council of the Four Lands kept a watchful eye on the needs of the Talmud Torah and the yeshiva. Pamphlets housed in various archives reveal an emphasis on responsibilities and scholarly tasks. The watchword of Judaism during the period of Lamdanut was: "Know the Torah."
The Period of Enlightenment
With the ascension of Frederick the Great to the Prussian throne, an era of French culture developed in Berlin. Frederick was a military hero and a supporter of the arts and literature who wrote both poetry and prose. At this time, the widespread adoption of French custom and the disparagement of religion generally went hand in hand.
The situation of Jews in Prussia was tenuous and often marked by economic hardship. Despite a few Jews attaining wealth, the majority remained outside general civil society. Nonetheless, the new spirit of Frederick's Prussia began to permeate Jewish areas. A desire for participation in the Enlightenment arose; Jews copied non-Jewish customs, and French culture became highly vogue.
Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786) originated much of this activity. Through his friendship with Lessing, Mendelssohn obtained entry into the circle of educated, enlightened non-Jews. There, he learned a more secularized style of thought, adapted himself to reigning cultural trends, and gave himself over to the German language and culture. Even at this early period, Rabbi Jacob Emden hinted that Mendelssohn "kept bad company" and that his approach to faith was suspect. When Mendelssohn translated the Torah into German, the traditional Jewish community shook. This translation was, however, well-received by the younger generation—not as a means for studying Torah, but as a tool for acquiring facility in German. German language study became so widespread that it began to usurp the place traditionally given to the Talmud.
Mendelssohn's students increased and spread into other areas, sparking a powerful urge to study German literature and science. The traditional quickness of mind associated with the Talmud student facilitated the acquisition of non-Jewish knowledge. Ha-Biur, Mendelssohn's Torah commentary, served as a force to move the young men of the yeshiva into European culture. The new watchword became: "Know the World." A strange wind was blowing; the ideal of the lamdan disappeared. Mendelssohn's approach created a new Jewish demographic among the youth of Germany and Western Europe. From Königsberg to Alsace, from Italy to Amsterdam, from London to Copenhagen, there hovered the new "ideal" of turning Judaism into something non-Jewish.
At the outset, the Enlightenment showed a special affection for the Hebrew language, intensely reviving the study of Tanakh and Hebrew poetry. This affection did not endure. The spirit of more "universal" studies pushed aside Jewish culture. The Enlightenment became a basis for heresy—a movement whose outlook demanded the elimination of anything opposing its strict rationalism, or anything that separated the Jews (as a "chosen people") from other nations. The fundamental desire of the Enlightenment was that Jews should become non-Jews.
Many followers of the Enlightenment converted to Christianity. Affluent businessmen made the salon the ideal of their lives and sought to rid themselves of religious obligations they had never really understood. They wanted permission to cast off the "yoke of the commandments." Having severed their connection with traditional Jewish religion, they were no longer willing to suffer for their Judaism. The short formula of conversion made it possible for them to become Christians. In Berlin, Königsberg, and Breslau, conversions occurred almost daily among "cultured" and affluent Jews. These apostates looked scornfully on those who remained and often became enemies of the Jews. Mendelssohn had served "poison" to the younger generation; over the years, his own children and grandchildren became Christians.
The original fear of the Enlightenment found in the pious Jewish community was confirmed. In their simple faith, the pious understood the outcome of this movement much better than the enlightened intellectuals. Those who remained faithful viewed the "enlightened Jews" as enemies and declared open war. The Enlightenment remained a continuing temptation to the children of the wealthy and to teachers who, considering themselves "philosophical geniuses," aped the Enlightenment approach, expressing their philosophy primarily through the ridicule of Jewish custom.
On the other side, the rabbinate felt pressed to strengthen Judaism by erecting "protective walls" around the Enlightenment to prevent its spread to Jewish Poland. Despite these efforts, a weak point enabled the spread of the Enlightenment heresy into Poland and Lithuania: the spiritual aristocracy (the rabbinate) stood far removed from the common people, who themselves had little contact with the world of the yeshivot. As a result, Vilna and Volozhin, the strongholds of the Gaon, began losing their influence. A segment of the new generation simply ceased living according to the Talmud and began an "affair" with the Enlightenment.
The Hasidic Movement
At the same time that the Enlightenment threatened Talmudic culture in Western Europe, the Hasidic countermovement began to bloom in Galicia and Poland. Hasidism kept watch against incursions from the West and against the one-sided approach of the Enlightenment, which relied on the power of the intellect alone. On its banner was inscribed the watchword: "Know God."
The Hasidic approach began with Rabbi Israel of Medzhibozh (the Baal Shem Tov). He spent a large part of his youth in the forests and caves of the Carpathian Mountains, experiencing the world as a creation of God and gaining a profound knowledge of the Creator.
In the world of lamdanut, there was little emphasis on the feelings and service of the heart. The scholarly world did not consider prayer from a depth of feeling, religious ecstasy, or works dealing with the care of the soul as primary means of education. Now came Hasidism, opening wide the heavens and breaking a path for the Jewish heart. That portion of the Jewish people not nourished spiritually through Talmud study quickly became influenced by Hasidism.
Hasidism meant joining oneself to the emanations of the Divine Ein Sof (the Infinite), and discovering oneself as a part of creation. It raises man, teaching him to view his soul as a part of the transcendent Divinity. It creates a sense of the greatness of the soul and a transcending optimism. Man begins to perceive everything sub specie divinitatis (from a Divine point of view). One's life becomes a life of happiness, joy, and wholeness. The goal of Hasidism is to transform a person into a human being of great spiritual stature, spreading the Divine light over his thoughts and actions.
Joyful living, sociality, and festive dance became fundamental to the movement. Hasidism announced that each creation has a soul, a point of both degeneracy and goodness. One must penetrate to the deepest depths of one's soul, filling it with life and light. The extent of this optimism is illustrated by the story of one great Hasidic Rebbe who, on his sickbed, commanded an orchestra to play a march and his Hasidim to dance joyously, based on the verse, "You shall rejoice even until the last day."
The forces of Lamdanut and Hasidut struggled mightily with one another. The scholars feared that the Hasidic emphasis on feeling might lead to a lighter attitude toward the performance of mitzvot or the abandonment of Torah study. Conversely, Hasidism believed that a Judaism of pure intellect could not withstand powerful worldly temptations.
History confirmed the Hasidic view. The tempest of the Berlin Enlightenment, blowing forcefully into Lithuania, uprooted the beautiful but tender shoots of the scholarly way. The struggle between Hasidism and its opponents did great damage, blinding them to the power of the Enlightenment to undermine Judaism. Within fifty years of the Gaon's death, the weakening of the yeshivot began to be felt. At this point, the Musar movement emerged to repair the spiritual damage, building a bridge between mind and feeling, and removing the difficulties separating the Hasidic approach from the world of learning.
The Period of the Musar Movement
Musar, although quite different from Hasidism, shares its emphasis on feeling. It is the fruit of Jewish emotion. Both movements share a concern for speaking to the heart of the people as a whole. In this sense, Musar is the Hasidism of the Mitnagdim (opponents of Hasidism).
Rabbi Israel Salanter (1810–1883) was the founder of the Musar approach. While Jewish ethical works had preceded him, Rabbi Salanter created de novo a method in ethics that he elevated to a central place in Jewish thought. Where Hasidism declared "Know God," Musar declared: "Know yourself."
Musar teaches one to face the question, "What am I, and what is my life?" It demands a confrontation with God as the one "before Whom you are in the future to give an accounting." It fosters an awareness of one's smallness, demanding that one break one's ego. Throughout, one strives to be a whole person, reaching for goodness as the soul, imprisoned within the body, strives to purify itself. Musar gazes from the depths of human depravity to the heights of the Ein Sof.
Self-examination and purity of thought are essential to the Musar method. One accounts for every action and avoids evil like poison. Musar says: "Conquer your impulses; consecrate yourself at such a level that no part of your soul is given over to hate or desire." Nothing may be done mechanically. Complacency is the worst of attitudes, leading to materialistic pride and spiritual decline. In our own day, the Hafetz Haim, with his watchword "Let your tongue turn from speaking evil," serves as the best representative of the continuing Musar movement.
The path of Musar is highly individual. Just as bodily illness requires an individualized cure, a sickness of spirit needs "spiritual Musar" to heal the weakest parts of the individual soul. Hasidism has its melody: the niggun (a tune without words). Musar also has its melody: the traditional, elegiac chant for studying Talmud.
Members of the Musar movement would gather in a private place for prayer and study (the Musar shtibel). Slowly, the quiet sound of tears and crying would collect in the air. A striking word calling for tshuvah (repentance) would be cast into the emptiness, issuing forth a deep wailing and groaning. Like Hasidism, Musar teaches that each creature has an inner goodness. However, Musar requires the destruction of the soul's lesser, evil parts to achieve perfection. Hasidism and Musar meet at a single point: a purified humanity attached to the living God. Hasidism creates this from above to below; Musar from below to above.
The degree of self-abnegation attained in Musar is illustrated by the last moments of Rabbi Israel Salanter's life. Lying in a small attic room, a black clock's monotonous ticking disturbed his sleep. When those near him wished to remove it, he refused, saying: "The clock is my dear friend in these last hours. It reminds me with each stroke that I am drawing closer to the Judgment Seat. Each swing of its pendulum reminds me of the words, 'Repent before your death.'"
In Lithuania, the Musar movement had a profound influence on scholarship. Today, the Musar shtibel is gone, but in every yeshiva, a set time for the study of Musar serves as precious seasoning to flavor the entire day's study. Most interestingly, Musar narrowed the gap between Hasidism and its opponents. Lithuania realized that study alone does not achieve everything and that the Jewish heart must be cared for; Poland realized that ecstasy without Torah study will not endure.
Conclusion
The great spiritual crisis I have discussed remains with us in the United States today. We find on one side an indifference to Jewish religious education and our holy institutions. On the other side, the malignancy of the Reform movement continues to eat us up and tear us apart. Surely, the time has arrived for Jewish Orthodoxy of all kinds to gather its remaining strength and repair the breaches in its walls.
We realize that the destructive attack on Judaism has been delivered by an ignorance of Torah. Thus, the healing cure lies in traditional Jewish education. Forewarned against merely copying the deeds of previous generations, we must nonetheless hold fast to the foundations of the three great movements of Lamdanut, Hasidut, and Musar. We unify their underlying themes into a single watchword: "Know the Torah, God, and yourself."
I pray that the power through which Torah Judaism has triumphed in the past will once again bring triumph. May He Who dwells above send His aid in this holy battle for the greatness and glory of the Torah, and may we merit to see the rebuilding of the Temple speedily in our Holy Land. Amen. May it be His Will.
Tradition 1980
